World Global Tuna Fisheries|
| | World Global Tuna Fisheries |
| Data Ownership | This document owned by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), provided and maintained by Marine and Inland Fisheries Branch (FIRF) , is part of FAO Global Marine Fishery Resource Reports data collection. |
|
Location of World Global Tuna Fisheries
Map tips
- Click on to turn layers on and off
- Double-click to zoom in
- Drag to pan
- Hold down the shift key and drag to zoom to a particular region
Geographic reference: World Spatial Scale: Global Reference year: 2009
| Approach: Fishery Resource Harvested ResourceFishery Area: Atlantic, Northwest; Atlantic, Northeast; Atlantic, Western Central; Atlantic, Eastern Central; more>> Target Species: Albacore; Bigeye tuna; Skipjack tuna … more>> Fishery IndicatorsCatch |
|
| History Fisheries: Development and expansion
Since the nineteenth century (and even from more ancient times), traditional tuna
fishing has been carried out in various parts in the world. Those fisheries were local and
generally near the coasts. In the Atlantic, they included purse seining for bluefin tuna
off Norway, baitboat and trolling for albacore in the Bay of Biscay, trap fishing near the
Strait of Gibraltar and North African coast, swordfish fishing in the northwest Atlantic
and in the Mediterranean, bigeye and skipjack fishing near islands, and artisanal fishing
along the African coasts. In the Pacific, various artisanal fisheries operated near islands
in the tropical waters. Off South America, coastal fisheries operated using baitboats and
small seines. In the Indian Ocean, skipjack fishing off India, Maldives Sri and Lanka
was carried out. Off Australia, longline fishing was carried out for southern bluefin
tuna. Many other artisanal fisheries for tuna-like fishes existed in tropical or subtropical
areas all over the world.
As a result of increasing demand for canned tuna, industrialized fisheries started
in the 1940s and 1950s. They included Japanese longline and baitboat fishing in the
Pacific, and United States baitboat fishing off California along the Mexican coasts.
The traditional fisheries described above continued at the same time. After the Second
World War, the fishing areas for the Japanese tuna fishery were limited to its coast until
the late 1940s or early 1950s. However, thereafter, the fisheries, particularly the longline
fisheries, expanded their fishing area very rapidly. In late 1950s, Japanese fishing vessels
reached the Atlantic Ocean. Also in the late 1950s, some European pole-and-line fishing
started off the African coasts from local harbours.
In the 1960s, Spanish and French boats with pole and line and purse seines started
tuna fishing off West Africa. In addition, Japanese longliners expanded their fishing area
all over the world, mostly fishing albacore and yellowfin for canning. In the mid-1960s, the Republic of Korea and Taiwan Province of China started large-scale longline fishing
to export tuna for canning, learning the techniques from Japan.
United States pole-and-line fishing off Central and South America was almost
completely replaced by purse seiners in the 1960s. Moreover, purse seining of tuna with
dolphin was developed in the eastern Pacific.
In the 1970s, purse seine fisheries of European countries developed quickly in the
eastern tropical Atlantic. They attained the first peak of their catches of yellowfin and
skipjack. In addition, the purse seine fishery developed further in the east tropical Pacific.
A strict regulation for the reduction of mortality of dolphins caught in association with
tuna was also implemented in this area. Consequently, the United States-flagged vessels
started changing their flags to those of Central and South American countries. Some
fishing effort also shifted to the central and western Pacific, where no dolphin fishing
occurred.
With the development of extremely cold storage, some longliners gradually changed
their target from yellowfin (for canning) to bigeye (for sashimi). This shift was first seen
among Japanese longliners, but it gradually expanded to the fleets from the Republic of
Korea and Taiwan Province of China. To catch bigeye, whose habitat is much deeper
than that of tropical tunas, longlines were set deeper and deeper. This change in fishing
strategy implied changes in fishing areas, leading to modifications in target and bycatch
species.
In the 1980s, a new purse seine fishery started in the western Indian Ocean. Many
French seiners from the eastern Atlantic moved into this fishery. In the Pacific Ocean,
the purse seine fishery expanded its fishing area, particularly in the south, central and
western Pacific. Purse-seine fishing efficiency increased with modern equipment such
as bird radar and the use of helicopters. In the 1980s, many new countries began largescale
industrial fishing, mostly with purse seines (e.g. Mexico, Venezuela [Bolivarian
Republic of] and Brazil). Small-scale longline fishing operations by coastal countries in
various areas (e.g. Mediterranean countries, the Philippines and Indonesia) also started
in the 1980s. The Japanese longline fleet started to reduce its size in that decade. At
the same time, longliners from Taiwan Province of China and others flying flags of
convenience increased rapidly.
Particularly in the 1980s, management regulatory measures for tuna fisheries were
introduced by tuna regional fisheries management organizations (t-RFMOs). These
regulations also affected fishing patterns and country shares of catches. In the 1990s,
more management measures were introduced. With insufficient MCS, this resulted
in an increase in IUU fishing. This became a major problem for proper management
of fish resources. In general, tuna-fishing capacity extensively increased in the 1990s.
Increases in the catches sometimes caused oversupply to the market, particularly for
skipjack because of large purse-seine catches.
Starting in the 1980s and increasingly in the 1990s, many coastal States started new
tuna fishing ventures using arrangements with the existing tuna-fishing nations. These
ventures included the chartering of vessels and other arrangements of association. This
practice occurred in all oceans. Some of these chartered vessels changed flags to those of
coastal States and, possibly, this tendency may intensify in the near future. This is one
of the reasons for declines in fishing effort by traditional longline fishing countries.
Purse seiners started fishing around fish aggregating devices (FADs) in the Atlantic
in the late 1980s or early 1990s, and this method expanded to the Indian and Pacific
Oceans. The FAD fishing is less selective for fish species and sizes. The fishing efficiency,
sizes of fish taken, species composition and incidental catches changed drastically with
the adoption of this new practice.
Tuna fattening started in the 1990s. This new industry resulted in: (i) an increasing
demand for bluefin of specific sizes (relatively small) suitable for growing on; and
(ii) better prices being paid for such fish to the fishers. Through the fattening process,
the particularly small bluefin (or ones with little fat) taken by purse seiners that used to
be sold only for canning can now be used for the sashimi market after their fattening. To
date, the three species of bluefin tuna are the main species used in farming, but farming
is extending to bigeye and yellowfin tuna. Bluefin farming is expanding, it now includes
Australia, Japan, Mexico and several Mediterranean countries (particularly Croatia,
Malta, Spain and Turkey).
Currently, on the industrial scale, tuna and tuna-like species are mainly caught with
purse-seine, longline and, to a less extent, pole-and-line over wide areas in oceans
(Figure C1.1; Carocci and Majkowski, 1996, 1998, 2011a, 2011b). Other gear types used
include troll lines, handlines, driftnets, traps and harpoons.
The industrial tuna fisheries are very dynamic, and fleets, especially distant-water
fishing fleets, can react very quickly to changes in stock sizes or market conditions. For
example, in the early 1980s, many French and Spanish purse seiners from the Atlantic
moved to the Indian Ocean, contributing to the doubling of catches there in the 1980s.
Some of these vessels have now moved back to the Atlantic as a result of the piracy
problem in the Indian Ocean. Similarly, many United States purse seiners have moved
from the eastern to the western Pacific.
The purse seine and pole-and-line are used to catch fish found close to the surface
(e.g. skipjack and relatively small yellowfin, albacore and bluefin tunas). Longlines are
used for tuna found at greater depths (e.g. large individuals of bluefin, bigeye, yellowfin,
albacore and billfishes). Most purse seine and pole-and-line catches are canned. With
the exception of those for albacore, longline catches are mainly sold on the sashimi
market to be consumed raw. The market has traditionally been in Japan, but it now
extends also to many other countries. To some extent, catches are also sold on the fresh
and frozen market to be consumed in the form of steaks. The use of pole-and-line and
large-scale longlining has been generally declining, while purse seining is increasingly
used. This has resulted in increased catches of skipjack, small-to-medium yellowfin and
small bigeye, while catches of large yellowfin and the other principal market tunas have
remained relatively stable. Information on industrial tuna fisheries entirely or partially
on the high seas is summarized in Table C1.1.
Small-scale longlining for high-quality fish for the sashimi market is increasingly
being used by China, Taiwan Province of China and various developing countries. This
contributes to a general trend of rapidly increasing importance of developing coastal
countries (including island countries of the Indian and Pacific Oceans) in tuna fishing.
This increasing importance of developing countries results from the purchase of purse
seiners and from the intensification of artisanal fisheries. Catches from these fisheries
may still be underestimated despite the fact that the rate of non-reporting of catches in
developing countries is being reduced.
Further information on tuna fisheries, fish processing and trade can be found in
Miyake et al. (2004, 2010).
Table C1.1 - Industrial tuna fisheries operating entirely or partially on the high seas, with an indication of some fishing countries
Area
|
Gear
|
Major vessel flags
|
Target species
|
Northeast Pacific
|
Longline
|
Japan and Taiwan Province of China
|
Albacore, bigeye and swordfish
|
Troll
|
Canada and United States of America
|
Albacore
|
Southeast Pacific
|
Longline
|
Chile and Spain
|
Swordfish
|
Eastern Pacific
|
Purse seine
|
Costa Rica, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Spain, Vanuatu, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) and United States of America
|
Skipjack, bigeye and yellowfin
|
Longline
|
Japan, Republic of Korea, United States of America and Taiwan Province of China
|
Albacore, bigeye and yellowfin
|
Western, Central and South Pacific
|
Longline
|
China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Taiwan Province of China and Vanuatu
|
Albacore, bigeye, yellowfin, southern bluefin tuna, Pacific bluefin tuna, and swordfish
|
Pole and line
|
Japan
|
Skipjack, albacore and yellowfin,
|
Purse seine
|
Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Taiwan Province of China and United States of America
|
Skipjack, bigeye and yellowfin
|
Eastern Indian Ocean
|
Longline
|
Belize, China, Honduras, Indonesia, Japan, Panama, Republic of Korea and Taiwan Province of China
|
Albacore, bigeye, southern bluefin, swordfish and yellowfin
|
|
Purse seine
|
Indonesia, Japan and Liberia
|
Skipjack and yellowfin
|
Western and Central Indian Ocean
|
Gillnet
|
India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Maldives and Sri Lanka,
|
Skipjack and yellowfin
|
Longline
|
China, Belize, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Japan, Panama, Republic of Korea, Réunion, Seychelles, Taiwan Province of China and Thailand
|
Bigeye and yellowfin
|
Pole and line
|
Maldives and Sri Lanka
|
Skipjack and yellowfin
|
Purse seine
|
Belize, France, Japan, Netherlands Antilles (dissolved), Seychelles and Spain
|
Skipjack and yellowfin
|
Eastern Atlantic
|
Longline
|
Belize, China, Honduras, Iceland, Ireland, Japan, Panama, Philippines, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Taiwan Province of China and Spain
|
Albacore, bigeye, Atlantic bluefin, swordfish and yellowfin
|
Pole and line
|
France, Ghana, Namibia, Panama, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Senegal, South Africa and Spain
|
Albacore, bigeye, skipjack and yellowfin
|
Purse seine
|
Côte d'Ivoire, France, Ghana, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Senegal and Vanuatu
|
Bigeye, skipjack and yellowfin
|
Troll
|
France, Ireland and Spain
|
Albacore
|
Western Atlantic
|
Longline
|
Brazil, Japan, Spain, Taiwan Province of China, United States of America, Uruguay and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
|
Albacore, bigeye, Atlantic bluefin, swordfish and yellowfin
|
Pole and line
|
Brazil, Japan, Taiwan Province of China and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
|
Skipjack
|
Purse seine
|
Brazil and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
|
Skipjack and yellowfin
|
Western and Central Atlantic
|
Longline
|
China, Japan, Portugal, Spain, Taiwan Province of China and United States of America
|
Bigeye and Atlantic bluefin
|
Western Mediterranean (Tyrrhenian and Liguria Seas & Strait of Sicily)
|
Gillnet
|
Morocco
|
Atlantic bluefin and swordfish
|
Longline
|
Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Japan, Libya, Spain and Taiwan Province of China
|
Atlantic bluefin and swordfish
|
Purse seine
|
Algeria, France, Italy, Spain and Tunisia
|
Atlantic bluefin
|
Handline
|
Morocco and Spain
|
Atlantic bluefin
|
Central Mediterranean (Adriatic & Ionian Seas)
|
Purse seine
|
Croatia and Italy
|
Atlantic bluefin and swordfish
|
Longline
|
Cyprus and Italy
|
Atlantic bluefin, albacore and swordfish
|
Eastern Mediterranean (Aegean & Marmara Seas)
|
Longline
|
Greece
|
Atlantic bluefin and swordfish
|
Purse seine
|
Turkey
|
Bonito and Atlantic bluefin
|
Harvested Resource Target Species Main target species Catch The catch profiles in this fact sheet are based on
FAO general catch statistics. These include tuna and tuna-like species, but they are not
exclusively for them. The t-RFMOs and tuna-fishing countries may have more detailed
and possibly more accurate or up-to-date statistics specifically for tuna (see their Web
sites given in the section on resource status of the source document). On the global scale, these
tuna-specific statistics of t-RFMOs have also been collated and made available by FAO
(Carocci and Majkowski, 2011b).
Explore more on the spatial distribution of tuna catches by fishing gears over last 60 years:
History
PRINCIPAL MARKET TUNAS
Historical evolutionThe global annual catch of tuna and tuna-like species reached about 6.5 million tonnes
in 2009. It has shown an increasing trend since 1950, when it was less than 1 million
tonnes, The global production of the principal market tunas increased relatively steadily
from less than 0.5 million tonnes in the early 1950s to the maximum of about 4.4 million tonnes in 2005, decreasing and then, reaching nearly that level in 2009 (Figure C1.2,
Table D19). Between 1970 and 1978, the catches of principal market tunas increased
significantly as a result of the expansion of fisheries in the eastern Atlantic and the
development of new offshore fishing grounds in the eastern Pacific. Between 1978
and 1984, many vessels moved to the western Pacific and the western Indian Ocean,
developing new fisheries there. Annual catches of tuna and tuna-like
species cannot grow indefinitely (Figure C1.2,
Table D19). In fact, they might already have
started to stabilize in recent years. In particular,
the principal market species may have peaked,
given the recent declines in catches of bigeye,
some bluefins and yellowfin. Skipjack catches
still continue to increase and the other species
are stabilizing. The total annual catch of
principal market tunas may even eventually
decline if the management of their fisheries is
not successful.
Main species
Skipjack, which is used mostly for canning,
accounts for the greatest proportion of the
world catches of tuna (Figure C1.2). Its catches
have tended to increase over the entire period of
its exploitation. In 2009, the skipjack catch was
more than 2.5 million tonnes (the highest on
record), being more than half of the total catch
of all principal market tuna landed. In the early
1980s, catches of skipjack increased steadily as
a result of expansion of fishing effort into the
tropical western and central Pacific and into the
western Indian Ocean.
Yellowfin is commercially the second most
important species of tuna by volume. Its catches
increased until 2003, reaching a maximum of
1.44 million tonnes. Since then, catches have
decreased to about 1 million tonnes in 2008
and 2009 (Figure C1.2). Most yellowfin is used
for canning, but more and more of the catch
is being sold in fresh-fish markets (also some as frozen fish). Catches in the Atlantic
(Table D19) reached a peak of 161 000 tonnes in 2001 but have since declined to about
120 000 tonnes. Catches from the Indian Ocean increased to a maximum of more than
0.5 million tonnes in 2004, decreasing to about 259 000 tonnes in 2009. Catches of
yellowfin from the Pacific increased consistently until 1976, when they stabilized. They
did not begin to rise again until the early 1980s, when large fleets of purse-seine vessels
began to fish in the tropical western and central Pacific. Catches reached a maximum
of almost 900 000 tonnes in 2002 and have recently fluctuated between 610 000 and
752 000 tonnes.
Bigeye, the third-most important species in terms of landed volume (Figure C1.3)
is similar in appearance to yellowfin. However, unlike yellowfin, large bigeye tuna
live primarily in deeper waters and spend most of their lives in cold waters below the
upper mixed layer of the ocean where they are mainly taken by longlines. Their high
fat content (for insulation from the cold water) make them desired for the Japanese
sashimi market. The rapid and substantial increase in catches in the mid-1970s resulted
from modifications to longline gear. This enabled longlines to be used in much deeper
water than previously. However, the use of FADs has shown smaller bigeye aggregate
in schools mixed with skipjack closer to the surface. Recently, the longline catches of
large bigeye have been declining. At the same time, purse-seine catches of smaller bigeye
have been rapidly increasing. These trends resulted in continuous large increases in total catches for the species to the maximum of about 467 000 tonnes in 2004, decreasing to
slightly more than 400 000 tonnes in 2009.
World production of albacore, used mostly for canning, increased from 1950 to the
early 1970s. It has fluctuated without a clear trend since then (recently at a slightly
higher level) with the maximum catches of 256 000 tonnes in 2009 (Figure C1.3). In the
1980s and early 1990s, driftnet fisheries made large catches of small albacore on the high
seas in the southwest and northeast Pacific. With the termination of these fisheries, the
total albacore catch declined in the Pacific.
Atlantic, Pacific and southern bluefin contribute relatively little in terms of volume
to the total catches of principal market tunas (Figure C1.3). However, their individual
value is high because of their use for sashimi. Catches of Atlantic bluefin followed a
generally declining trend from the early 1950s to the early 1970s. In the next decade
and half, catches fluctuated without trend. In the early 1990s, catches increased rapidly
to 53 000 tonnes in 1996 as a consequence of improved reporting in the Mediterranean
Sea. Reported catches declined after 1996 to 21 000 tonnes in 2009. The catch of Pacific
bluefin peaked at 40 000 tonnes in 1956. The smallest catch was 8 000 tonnes in 1990.
Catches have fluctuated between 10 000 and 30 000 tonnes since that time. Catches of
southern bluefin increased steeply from 14 000 tonnes in 1952 to 50 000 tonnes in 1961.
They fluctuated without trend between 40 000 tonnes and 55 000 tonnes until 1972.
Catches decreased steeply and steadily from 47 000 tonnes in 1980 to 12 000 tonnes in
1991. In the last decade, they have been between 10 000 and 17 500 tonnes.
The catches of tunas and tuna-like species other than the principal market tunas also
increased significantly from about 0.5 million tonnes in the early 1970s to slightly more
than 2 million tonnes in 2009 (Table D19). Less than 10 percent of them are composed
of billfishes, taken mainly in the Pacific and Atlantic. In terms of volume, the most
important species of tunas and tuna-like species other than the principal market tunas
(i.e. small tunas and tuna-like species) are: kawakawa, frigate and bullet tunas, longtail
tuna, narrow-barred Spanish mackerel, swordfish, frigate tuna, Japanese Spanish
mackerel, Indo-Pacific king mackerel, eastern Pacific bonito, Atlantic bonito, Indo-
Pacific sailfish, blue marlin and king mackerels.
| Figure C1.2 Annual global catches of tuna and tuna-like species |
| Figure C1.3 Annual global catches of selected tunas |
Main areasSince 1950, the largest proportion of principal market tunas has been
always taken from the Pacific (Figure C1.1), reaching more than 3 million tonnes in
2009 (Gillett 2010, 2011a, 2011b). This represents about 71 percent of global annual
catch of principal market tunas. Skipjack and yellowfin contribute about 87 percent of
the total catch of principal market tunas in the Pacific.
Until the mid-1980s, catches of principal market species in the Atlantic Ocean and
the Mediterranean Sea were greater than those in the Indian Ocean. About that time,
they became smaller than those in the Indian Ocean. Catches of principal market tunas
in the Atlantic declined from the maximum of slightly more than 0.6 million tonnes
annually in 1994 to slightly below 0.4 million tonnes in 2009. This represents only
about 9.5 percent of global landings of principal market tunas. Bigeye, skipjack and
yellowfin contribute about 85 percent of the total catches of principal market species
there.
Prior to the 1980s, the catch from the Indian Ocean accounted for less than 8 percent
of world production of principal market tunas. As a result of the expansion of tuna
fishing operations in the region, catches of skipjack and yellowfin increased rapidly in
the mid-1980s. Consequently, catches of principal market tunas in the Indian Ocean
surpassed those in the Atlantic Ocean, accounting for about 20 percent of global
landings of principal market tunas in 2009 (about 836 000 tonnes). Currently, skipjack
and yellowfin contribute about 94 percent of the total catches of principal market tunas
from the Indian Ocean. The principal market tuna catches of Japan, Indonesia and the Philippines are
currently the largest of all countries (more than 0.4 million tonnes caught in 2009).
Traditional tuna fishing players include Taiwan Province of China (328 217 tonnes in
2009), the Republic of Korea (319 726 tonnes in 2009), Spain (252 391 tonnes in 2009), the
United States of America (201 208 tonnes in 2009) and France (89 856 tonnes in 2009).
In addition, recent catches of Papua New Guinea (213 018 tonnes in 2009), Ecuador
(185 323 tonnes in 2009), Mexico (129 926 tonnes in 2009) and China (124 809 tonnes in
2009) exceeded those of some traditional tuna fishing countries. This reflects a general
trend of increasing importance of non-traditional tuna fishing countries (mostly
developing countries). Tuna fisheries are growing in both the Indian and Pacific Oceans,
particularly off Southeast Asia. These fisheries include the artisanal sector and catch
mostly small tunas, skipjack and yellowfin. This sector’s growth has also been significant
in the entire Indian Ocean. Other important countries catching principal market tunas
include: Sri Lanka (121 176 tonnes in 2009), Panama (86 918 tonnes in 2009), Maldives
(86 804 tonnes in 2009), Seychelles (73 819 tonnes in 2009), Iran (Islamic Republic of)
(67 415 tonnes in 2009) and Ghana (64 973 tonnes in 2009).
Fishery Area Geo References FAO Major Fishing Areas | 21 - Atlantic, Northwest | 27 - Atlantic, Northeast | 31 - Atlantic, Western Central | 34 - Atlantic, Eastern Central | 37 - Mediterranean and Black Sea | 41 - Atlantic, Southwest | 47 - Atlantic, Southeast | 48 - Atlantic, Antarctic | 51 - Indian Ocean, Western | 57 - Indian Ocean, Eastern | 58 - Indian Ocean, Antarctic | 61 - Pacific, Northwest | 67 - Pacific, Northeast | 71 - Pacific, Western Central | 77 - Pacific, Eastern Central | 81 - Pacific, Southwest | 87 - Pacific, Southeast |
More Geo References The following area codes have been found as intersecting the location of World Global Tuna FisheriesFAO Major Fishing Areas | 21 - Atlantic, Northwest | 27 - Atlantic, Northeast | 31 - Atlantic, Western Central | 34 - Atlantic, Eastern Central | 37 - Mediterranean and Black Sea | 41 - Atlantic, Southwest | 47 - Atlantic, Southeast | 48 - Atlantic, Antarctic | 51 - Indian Ocean, Western | 57 - Indian Ocean, Eastern | 58 - Indian Ocean, Antarctic | 61 - Pacific, Northwest | 67 - Pacific, Northeast | 71 - Pacific, Western Central | 77 - Pacific, Eastern Central | 81 - Pacific, Southwest | 87 - Pacific, Southeast | Large Marine Ecosystem Areas (LME) | 1 - Eastern Bering Sea | 2 - Gulf of Alaska | 3 - California Current | 4 - Gulf of California | 5 - Gulf of Mexico | 6 - Southeast U.S. Continental Shelf | 7 - Northeast U.S. Continental Sh | 8 - Scotian Shelf | 9 - Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf | 10 - Insular Pacific-Hawaiien | 11 - Pacific Central American Coast | 12 - Caribbean Sea | 13 - Humboldt Current | 14 - Patagonian Shelf | 15 - South Brazil Shelf | 16 - East Brazil Shelf | 17 - North Brazil Shelf | 18 - West Greenland Shelf | 19 - East Greenland Shelf | 20 - Barents Sea | 22 - North Sea | 23 - Baltic Sea | 24 - Celtic-Biscay Shelf | 25 - Iberian Coastal | 26 - Mediterranean Sea | 28 - Guinea Current | 29 - Benguela Current | 30 - Agulhas Current | 32 - Arabian Sea | 33 - Red Sea | 35 - Gulf of Thailand | 36 - South China Sea | 38 - Indonesian Sea | 39 - North Australian Shelf | 40 - Northeast Australian Shelf/Great Barrier Reef | 42 - Southeast Australian Shelf | 43 - Southwest Australian Shelf | 44 - West-Central Australian Shelf | 45 - Northwest Australian Shelf | 46 - New Zealand Shelf | 49 - Kuroshio Current | 50 - Sea of Japan | 52 - Sea of Okhotsk | 53 - West Bering Sea | 54 - Chukchi Sea | 59 - East Greenland Shelf/Sea | 60 - Faroe Plateau | 62 - Black Sea | 63 - Hudson Bay | 64 - Arctic Ocean | 65 - Arctic Archipelago | 66 - Baffin Bay/Davis Straight |
Management
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS FOR INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION IN FISHERIES RESEARCH
REGIONAL FRAMEWORK
States fishing tuna and tuna-like species cooperate regarding conservation and
fisheries management within several international frameworks (FAO, 1994; Marashi,
1996; Beckett, 1998), particularly those of the CCSBT, IATTC, ICCAT, IOTC and
WCPFC. Jurisdictional framework
| FAO, 2010. Competence areas of Tuna Regional Fisheries Management Organizations |
Mandate: Scientific Advice; Management. The IATTC is the oldest tuna fishery body and was established in 1950, whereas
the WCPFC is the youngest body and has been operational since 2004. In addition to
their responsibilities in conservation and fisheries management, the CCSBT, IATTC,
ICCAT, IOTC and WCPFC facilitate the data collection, collation, processing and
dissemination. They are also responsible for stock assessment and other fisheries
research in support of fisheries management and for regional coordination in their areas
of competence. The IATTC carries out intensive research, having significant research
capacity, while the role of the CCSBT, ICCAT and IOTC in research is mostly limited
to the coordination of activities of their member countries. Mandate: Scientific Advice; Management.
The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas is an inter-governmental fishery organization responsible for the conservation of tunas and tuna-like species in the Atlantic Ocean and its adjacent seas. In the Mediterranean Sea (which is included in the area of competence of ICCAT) ICCAT closely collaborates with the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) regarding tuna and tuna-like species statistics and bycatch issues.
ICCAT compiles fishery statistics from its members and from all entities fishing for these species in the Atlantic Ocean, coordinates research, including stock assessment, on behalf of its members, develops scientific-based management advice, provides a mechanism for Contracting Parties to agree on management measures, and produces relevant publications.
Mandate: Scientific Advice; Management. Mandate: Scientific Advice; Management. The IOTC and GFCM are fishery bodies of FAO. Before the creation of the IOTC,
the FAO/UNDP Indo-Pacific Tuna Programme coordinated and carried out tuna
research in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific off Southeast Asia. Before its termination,
it transferred the responsibility for data collation, processing and dissemination for tuna
and tuna-like species in the Pacific off Southeast Asia to the Southeast Asian Fishery
Development Center (SEAFDEC). Now, the WCPFC is mostly responsible for these
activities. Mandate: Scientific Advice; Management. CCSBT deals with only one target species (southern bluefin
tuna) on a global scale. Management Body/Authority(ies): Mandate: Scientific Advice; Management. Mandate: Scientific Advice; Management. Mandate: Scientific Advice; Monitoring. The Secretariat to the South Pacific Community (SPC) has a significant research
capacity that fulfils technical functions similar to the tuna fishery bodies. However,
its responsibilities do not extend to fisheries management in the region. The recently
created WCPFC fulfils that responsibility. The Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA, www.
ffa.int/) is substantially involved in negotiating and regulating access of distant-water
tuna vessels to the EEZs of its members in the South Pacific. The Parties to the Nauru
Agreement, another subregional grouping of coastal countries, have established a
management regime with limits on fishing effort for purse-seine vessels.
GLOBAL COOPERATIONCooperation must also extend beyond the scale of single oceans. Industrial tuna
fleets are highly mobile and the principal market tunas are intensively traded on a
global scale. In addition, many tuna research, conservation and management problems
are similar in all oceans. Therefore, there is a need for global exchange of information
and collaboration regarding fisheries for tunas and other species with a wide global
distribution. An important example of such collaboration is the formulation in 1995 of
the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the UN Convention on the
Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management
of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (frequently referred to as
the UN Fish Stocks Agreement or UNFSA). The UN facilitated the conclusion of this
agreement, and FAO actively assisted, from the technical point of view, in the agreement
being reached (Doulman, 1995).
The UNFSA entered into force on 11 December, 2001. It became a new legal basis
for its signatories in relation to conservation and fisheries management of tuna and
tuna-like species (supplementing the UNCLOS). In 1995, the Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries (the Code) was completed within the framework of FAO (FAO,
1995). Although not legally binding, the Code provides a norm for all fisheries and related
activities. The UNFSA and the Code introduce new requirements for conservation,
fisheries management, technology and research regarding tuna and tuna-like species.
They are likely to affect various sectors of the tuna industry (Mahon, 1996). As a result,
the high seas are no longer an area where unrestricted fishing is allowed.
The precautionary approach incorporated into the UNFSA and the Code may affect
the exploitation of tuna and tuna-like species. It calls on States to be more cautious
where information is uncertain, unreliable or inadequate (FAO, 1996; Majkowski,
1998). Adequate information is available for most stocks of principal market tunas to
determine whether they are fully exploited or overexploited. However, for many other
tuna and tuna-like species, this is not the case. Within the context of the precautionary
approach, the absence of adequate scientific information should not be used as a reason
for postponing or failing to undertake conservation or fisheries management measures.
In Thailand in March 2000, FAO coorganized, jointly with the CCSBT, IATTC, ICCAT,
IOTC and SPC, a global Expert Consultation on Implications of the Precautionary
Approach for Tuna Biological and Technological Research (FAO, 2001).
FAO has been involved in the consideration of many other global issues involving
tuna and tuna-like species. For example, it executed a technical, multidisciplinary
trust fund project (GCP/INT/851/JPN) on the management of tuna fishing capacity,
conservation and socio-economics. The technical advisory committee for the project
was composed of experts affiliated with the CCSBT, FFA, IATTC, ICCAT, INFOFISH
(www.infofish.org), IOTC, SPC and international associations of tuna longliners and
purse seiners. The project’s activities involved global studies and an Expert Consultation
on the Management of Tuna Fishing Capacity, Conservation and Socio-economics. For
many tuna fishing fleets, there is insufficient control of their capacity, actual fishing
effort and catches. Recently, concerns on overcapacity of tuna fleets have emerged
(Joseph, 2003). As a result, FAO has formulated and implemented a project on the
management of tuna fishing capacity. This project has been undertaken in collaboration
with the organizations mentioned above with the objectives of: (i) providing the necessary technical information; and (ii) identifying, considering and resolving technical
problems associated with the global management of tuna fishing capacity, taking into
account conservation and socio-economic issues.
FAO has actively participated in joint tuna RFMOs (t-RFMOs) meetings and in
meetings with their member countries. This global consultation has been frequently
referred to as the Kobe Process because it started from a meeting held in Kobe,
Japan, in 2007. The objectives of this meeting were to improve the operation and
effectiveness of t-RFMOs and to achieve their objectives by harmonizing their
activities on a global scale. FAO’s project on the management of tuna fishing capacity
has provided a significant input to the process in a form of recommendations on that
management including those on the application of a rights-based approach to tuna
fisheries management.
Currently, FAO is formulating a Programme on Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction
to be supported by the GEF. Within this programme, FAO, in consultation with
t-RFMOs and other intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, is
formulating a project on tuna fisheries to improve their sustainability. This project will
probably implement some of the recommendations made during the Kobe Process, but
the activities of the project may go beyond that process.
In addition, FAO collates data on nominal catches of all fish species including tunas
as a part of a general database on all fish species. It also collates data for other databases,
specifically for only tuna and billfishes. The first data set for all species is based mostly
on official national statistics and does not distinguish among different types of fishing
gear. The second data set specifically for tunas identifies gear types as it is based
mainly on statistics from the t-RFMOs (Carocci and Majkowski, 2011b). Both sets
can be accessed from the FAO Web page. FAO also collates data on the geographical
distribution of catches of tunas and billfishes on the global scale. On the basis of these
data, paper, CD and Internet versions of an atlas of tuna and billfish catches have been
prepared (Carocci and Majkowski 1996, 1998, 2011a). These data as well as information
on tuna resources, fisheries and their management are being incorporated into FAO’s
Fisheries Global Information System (FIGIS).
The depletion of some bluefin stocks has been the prime problem for the t-RFMOs,
particularly for those specifically dealing with these stocks (ICCAT and CCSBT).
However, the problem creates a very bad image for all tuna fishing and also for the
other t-RFMOs. This concern has been also discussed within the context of CITES.
In 2010, Atlantic bluefin was not listed in Appendixes of CITES because of CITES’
conclusion that ICCAT rather than CITES is the more appropriate organization to
manage Atlantic bluefin tuna fisheries.
However, with the exception of bluefins, serious overfishing has been largely avoided
for several reasons. These include the high productivity of tuna species and decreases
in fish prices when markets become saturated. In the past, the global overproduction of
canned tuna led to drastic reductions in prices of some species for canning. With the fully
exploited status of most stocks of tuna and tuna-like species and the overexploitation of
some stocks, more concerns related to their conservation and fisheries management are
likely to arise. In addition to the concern for bluefin, some stocks of albacore (North
Atlantic and North Pacific), bigeye (western and central Pacific), swordfish and some
other billfishes merit close attention because of overfishing. Without adequate fisheries
management, future catches of some species may decline in the long term as a result of
overfishing.
The measures used by the t-RFMOs are a mix of catch limits for stocks, closed
fishing seasons either for the entire fishery or for smaller areas, and limiting entry to
fisheries. However, the management techniques used tend to encourage competition
among fishers to obtain the greatest share of catches available under the management
rule. Some of the t-RFMOs (IATTC, IOTC and WCPFC) have adopted forms of limited entry to vessels or are limiting fishing effort. The ICCAT relies more on catch
quotas that are allocated to its members.
The monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) of tuna fisheries are mostly carried
out by the members of t-RFMOs. It is essential to ensure management measures are
observed, but some observer programmes and one vessel monitoring system are managed
multilaterally. The t-RFMOs have included trade measures as incentives for compliance
with management measures. Many of the major market States have a requirement for
tracing imports to their source. The International Seafood Sustainability Foundation
(ISSF) and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) are working actively as stakeholders
to improve the application of Marine Stewardship Council certification in tuna fisheries.
The t-RFMOs are in the process of introducing improved MCS systems, which are the
subject of discussions of the Kobe Process.
The effectiveness of tuna fisheries management has been improving. However, further
substantial progress is still required. Allen (2010) reported that, for the 14 stocks of
principal stocks in need of fisheries management at the time of his study, the t-RFMOs
took action consistent with the scientific advice for only five of them. Moreover, when
the right management decisions are undertaken, these decisions are not necessarily
properly executed. In other words, there is a need for significant improvement in
fisheries management in terms of implementing the correct decisions and much better
MCS. The facilitation of these changes has been one of the reasons for initiating the
Kobe Process and seeking the GEF’s support for improving the effectiveness of tuna
fisheries management.
With the present status of stocks, the catches of principal market tunas should
not increase on the global scale in the near future. This is unless future technological
developments can allow an increase in skipjack catches without increasing those of
bigeye and yellowfin. As mentioned above, there is potential for a significant increase
in catches of skipjack in the western and central Pacific. However, in this area, skipjack
is taken together with small bigeye and yellowfin, and increases of bigeye and yellowfin
catches are not desirable. In general, the multispecies nature of many tuna fisheries
makes it difficult to control the fishing mortality selectively because several species are
frequently caught together.
The overall yield from tuna and tuna-like species depends on the combination of fishing
techniques and fishing effort. The various fishing methods have different effectiveness and
selectivity characteristics when targeting various age groups. Improvements in the yield
might be achieved in some cases (e.g. albacore and yellowfin in the Atlantic and other
oceans, bigeye in the Atlantic and Pacific, and southern bluefin tuna) by reducing the
catch of small or immature tuna. This would allow them to grow and become available
to fisheries such as longlining that target larger fish. Problems occur with compliance to
the present size regulations (e.g. within the framework of ICCAT, especially for Atlantic
bluefin in the Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic). The intensification of
fishing around FADs also raises concerns because such fishing tends to result in large
catches of small fish. For example, the problem became so acute in the eastern Atlantic
that the industry (French and Spanish purse seiners) placed self-imposed controls on the
use of FADs. In general, the protection of small sized fish may not necessarily result in
increases in a local yield from an area when species make extensive migrations. In addition,
protecting smaller individuals of species with high natural mortality, such as skipjack,
may not always achieve the expected results from the conservation point of view.
Bioeconomic interactions among fisheries need to be scientifically addressed for the
resolution of fisheries management problems. Coordinated effort in this direction was
initiated by FAO’s trust fund project Cooperative Research on Interactions of Pacific
Tuna Fisheries (Shomura, Majkowski and Langi, 1993a, 1993b; Shomura, Majkowski
and Harmon, 1995, 1996). At present, with the completion of this project, this effort is
being continued by regional and national institutions.
The magnitude of incidentally caught species (bycatch), their discards as well as catch
of small individuals of target species and the status of stocks of the bycatch species have
been another area of concern (Alverson et al., 1994; Bailey et al., 1994; Joseph, 1994;
Gillett, 2011b; Hall, 1996, 1998; IATTC, 1998). Generally, bycatch from tuna fisheries
are relatively low. However, they include species of dolphins, turtles, seabirds and
sharks, which receive particularly wide attention from the international community.
In recent years, there has been more attention given by the t-RFMOs to conservation
of associated biodiversity. The IATTC has an active programme of conserving dolphins
that started in 1980. It developed into a standalone voluntary agreement among the
countries involved in purse-seine fishing in 1992. This agreement was succeeded by
the legally binding Agreement on the International Dolphin Conservation Program in
1998. This programme successfully maintains the mortality of dolphins associated with
the purse seine fishery at very low levels.
Of associated fish species, sharks are the most vulnerable to fishing (Chapter C2;
Musick and Musick, 2011). In recent years, t-RFMOs have been initiating assessments
of some shark stocks, and have taken measures to reduce bycatch and to control shark
finning. This generally requires that bodies of sharks as well as fins are unloaded. The
IATTC requires parties to encourage the live release of sharks taken as bycatch. The
ICCAT prohibits directed fisheries for thresher sharks, and any landings of bigeye
thresher sharks. It requires that parties take measures to reduce mortality from directed
fisheries for porbeagle and shortfin mako sharks. Bycatch of other fish species taken
during tuna fishing, which seem to be less vulnerable than sharks, are also receiving
attention. The IATTC and WCPFC have measures to encourage the live release of these
species to the extent possible.
All of the t-RFMOs have measures to reduce mortality of turtles and seabirds.
The IATTC and members of ICCAT and IOTC have been carrying out research to
minimize turtle mortality during longlining and purse-seining. The IATTC has an
extension programme training and assisting artisanal longline fishers in reducing turtle
mortality. All of the t-RFMOs have measures requiring longline vessels to use devices
to keep seabirds away from fishing gear. Governments, the ISSF and WWF have carried
out investigative work with the aim of making fishing more selective.
In the future, a greater utilization of bycatch species may be expected. Fishing may
become more selective through gear modifications and changes in fishing areas and
seasons. Moreover, more research will probably be undertaken to determine the status
of stocks of incidentally caught species. There is already some improvement in the
collection of data on bycatch.
There are various management measures imposed for tuna fisheries at regional scales,
particularly in areas where the t-RFMOS have been operational for a long time. This
is the case in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea (ICCAT) and the eastern
tropical Pacific (IATTC). In the case of ICCAT, the measures include: size limits for
bluefin; fishing effort restrains for yellowfin and bluefin; catch limits for albacore,
bigeye and bluefin; and restrictions on the use of FADs in some areas or periods. Some
other measures include seasonal and geographical closures in the Mediterranean Sea.
Source of Information Marine and Inland Fisheries Service, Fisheries and Aquaculture Resources Use and Conservation Division. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department “Review of the state of world marine fishery resources” .
FAO FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE TECHNICAL PAPER. No. 569. Rome, FAO. 2011.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2389e/i2389e.pdf Bibliography The bibliographic references are available through the hyperlink displayed in "Source of Information". ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors are grateful to Dr Peter Miyake and his colleagues for their help with
the provision of information for the preparation of the section ob Fisheries and Table
C1.1. They also appreciate the assistance of the Secretariats and tuna scientists of FFA,
t-RFMOs and SPC with obtaining information for this review and their cooperation and
collaboration with FAO. Drs Robin Allen and Victor Restrepo have kindly provided
helpful suggestions for improving an earlier version of this review. |
|
|